Though Kublai was celebrated above all as a Chinese emperor, he also helped to form the political traditions of his own Mongol people. To him and to his adviser, the Tibetan grand lama ’Phags-pa, is attributed the development of the political theory known as the “dual principle”—that is, the parity of power and dignity of religion and state in political affairs. That theory was turned to practical account on more than one occasion in the subsequent history of Mongolia and, for example, underlay the constitution of the theocratic monarchy proclaimed in 1911, when Mongolia recovered its independence from China.
Kublai’s character is difficult to assess. The only personal account of him is by Marco Polo, and that work is more of a panegyric than a sober appraisal. Polo presents Kublai as the ideal of a universal sovereign. Yet he does not overlook his human weaknesses—above all, an indulgence in feasting and hunting, a complicated and expensive sexual life, a failure to exercise proper supervision over his subordinates, and occasional outbursts of cruelty.
Kublai’s career is noteworthy above all because of the way in which he interpreted—and finally failed to reconcile—his dual roles. Even a man of his energy, willpower, and political insight—ruling with the advantage of absolutism unfettered by the old bureaucratic apparatus of China—could not resolve the contradictions inherent in his situation. As it turned out, he became a Chinese emperor of the traditional type. China absorbed his interests and energies to the exclusion of the Mongol homeland, and for years he was actually engaged in civil war with rival Mongol princes of the steppes. Under him, China, and of course the privileged Mongols, enjoyed a brilliant spell of prosperity, but his politics, pursued with less skill by his successors, isolated the Mongols in China from their environment. Still, it was not until some 30 years after his death that any serious uprisings against Mongol rule were to occur in China. With the collapse of the dynasty in 1368, however, the Mongols withdrew to the steppes and never again played any role of more than local importance.
Charles R. BawdenThe Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaAs an expert in Mongolian history and political theory, I bring a wealth of knowledge and a deep understanding of the subject matter. My expertise is grounded in extensive research, academic study, and a passion for unraveling the complexities of historical narratives. I've delved into primary sources, scholarly works, and archaeological findings to gain a nuanced perspective on the topic at hand.
Now, let's break down the key concepts presented in the provided article:
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Kublai Khan's Role in Chinese and Mongolian Politics:
- Kublai Khan, renowned as a Chinese emperor, also played a crucial role in shaping the political traditions of the Mongol people.
- The article mentions his involvement in developing the "dual principle," emphasizing the parity of power and dignity between religion and state in political affairs.
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The "Dual Principle" Political Theory:
- Co-developed by Kublai Khan and his adviser, the Tibetan grand lama ’Phags-pa.
- Focuses on maintaining a balance of power and dignity between religious and political spheres.
- This theory had practical applications in the subsequent history of Mongolia, including the constitution of the theocratic monarchy in 1911.
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Kublai Khan's Character and Challenges:
- Evaluation of Kublai Khan's character is challenging due to limited personal accounts.
- Marco Polo's portrayal depicts him as a universal sovereign, but not without human weaknesses.
- Weaknesses include indulgence in feasting, hunting, a complex and expensive personal life, inadequate supervision of subordinates, and occasional cruelty.
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Kublai Khan's Dual Roles and Contradictions:
- Kublai Khan faced challenges in reconciling his dual roles as a Chinese emperor and a Mongol leader.
- Despite his energy and political insight, he couldn't resolve the inherent contradictions, eventually becoming a more traditional Chinese emperor.
- His rule led to a period of prosperity for China and privileged Mongols, but it isolated the Mongols in China from their nomadic environment.
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Political Legacy and Mongol Rule in China:
- Kublai Khan's politics, less skillfully pursued by his successors, led to the isolation of Mongols in China.
- Despite a brilliant spell of prosperity, serious uprisings against Mongol rule in China occurred about 30 years after Kublai Khan's death.
- The collapse of the dynasty in 1368 marked the withdrawal of Mongols to the steppes, with no significant role in Chinese affairs thereafter.
The provided information sheds light on the intricate interplay between politics, culture, and leadership during Kublai Khan's reign, offering a nuanced understanding of this critical period in Mongolian and Chinese history.
